Rehearsals, travel, and preparation can add hours to creative professionals’ workloads, but these are not always reflected in their recorded working time or pay, the new study finds.
Creative professionals in the music, film, and live performance industries may be spending considerably more time on their work than their recorded hours suggest, with activities such as rehearsals, travel, and preparation not always recognised or remunerated consistently.
This is among the findings of a new study by the International Labour Organization (ILO), which also points to wide differences in earnings across the industries.
Titled Trends in remuneration and working time: Recorded media and live performance, the study examines employment and payment arrangements across recorded music, film, television, live concerts, theatre, and festivals. It draws on labour market data, research, and consultations with employers’ and workers‘ organisations.
The findings highlight the challenges of measuring earnings and working hours in industries where professionals often work across multiple projects and take on different roles.
Multiple income streams make earnings harder to track
Unlike workers in more conventional employment arrangements, creative professionals may rely on several
A musician, for example, may earn from live performances and recordings, while also taking on teaching or technical work. Payments can also come in different forms, from salaries and engagement fees to royalties and residuals earned when their work is used again.
With work often spread across different engagements, determining total earnings can be difficult, particularly during periods when projects are limited.
ILO labour market data show substantial differences in median monthly earnings across the countries studied. However, the organisation cautioned against treating these figures as definitive, as surveys may not account fully for income from multiple jobs or payments arising from the subsequent use of creative works.
Gender differences in earnings are another concern flagged. In the European Union, women working in cultural employment earned, on average, 13.5% less per hour than men in 2022, the study noted.
Rehearsals and preparation add to working hours
Pay is only part of the picture. According to the findings, the time needed to complete a production or performance can extend well beyond the hours spent filming, recording or performing.
For example, a production may involve several rounds of rehearsals, travel to different locations, equipment set-up, as well as post-production work. Yet, these activities are not always accounted for in the same way.
Depending on the arrangement, workers may receive separate payments for these tasks, have them covered under an agreed fee or find that the time spent is not consistently recorded.
This, it was noted, can create uncertainty around how much time professionals are actually putting into a project, especially when they are juggling several engagements.
The nature of the work can also make it difficult to maintain regular schedules. Long working hours and limited opportunities for rest and recovery may have implications for occupational safety and health, as well as workers’ ability to maintain a healthy work-life balance.
Payment arrangements determine who benefits from future earnings
The financial uncertainty does not affect creative workers alone. As highlighted, independent producers, smaller venues, and micro, small and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) also face the possibility of not recovering their upfront investments, particularly when audience demand and commercial returns are difficult to predict.
How workers are paid can influence how these risks are shared. A fixed fee or buyout gives contributors an agreed payment upfront, providing greater certainty over their immediate earnings. However, this may limit their ability to benefit from additional revenue if a production or performance generates further commercial returns.
Royalties and residuals offer another arrangement, allowing contributors such as authors and performers to receive payments when their work is used subsequently.
Neither approach is without trade-offs. The ILO highlighted the importance of clear contracts and transparent payment terms so that workers understand how they will be compensated and what happens when their work is used again.
Digital distribution has added another layer to this arrangement. Streaming platforms have enabled artists, producers and smaller businesses to reach audiences beyond their domestic markets, but the various rights and payment channels involved can make it harder to track how revenue is generated and distributed.
AI adds to questions around skills and remuneration
The growing use of artificial intelligence (AI) is also changing the way creative work is produced. Tools that assist with editing, subtitling, scheduling, and sound production may help reduce the time needed for certain tasks. At the same time, they can change the skills required and introduce additional work in areas such as supervision and quality control.
There are also questions over how existing creative works, voices, and performances are used in AI-enabled systems, particularly when it comes to securing consent, giving proper attribution and determining whether contributors should be compensated.
The issue has drawn different priorities from stakeholders. Workers’ organisations have called attention to the need for consent, transparency and compensation, while employers’ and industry organisations have stressed the importance of practical rules that do not hinder innovation and investment.
Commenting on the findings, Dagmar Walter, Director of the ILO’s Sectoral Policies Branch, said audiences often see the finished film or performance without necessarily knowing the work and investment behind it.
“Adequate remuneration, well-organised working time, and sustainable creative enterprises all belong in the same discussion. Social dialogue can be of enormous value in helping employers and workers to come up with practical solutions as the industry is transformed by technology,” she said.
Better data and clearer contracts among priorities
To improve conditions across the industries, the ILO has identified several areas requiring attention.
These include gathering better data on earnings and working hours, improving contractual clarity, making schedules more predictable and supporting workers in developing the skills needed to adapt to technological changes.
The organisation also highlighted social dialogue between governments, employers, and workers, including through collective bargaining, as a way to develop solutions that account for the different working arrangements and business realities across the sector.
Ultimately, the findings point to a need to look beyond the hours spent on stage or in front of a camera. For creative professionals, the work behind the finished product is also part of the job, and how it is recognised can make a difference to their earnings and working conditions.
